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General
Requirements
- Housekeeping
- Aisles
and Passageways
- Covers
and Guardrails
- Floor
Loading Protection
Guarding
Floor and Wall Openings and Holes
- Definitions
- Protection
for Floor Openings
- Protection
of Open-Sided Floors, Platforms, and Runways
- Stairway
Railings and Guards
Fixed
Industrial Stairs
Portable
Ladders
Fixed
Ladders
Safety
Requirements for Scaffolding
Manually
Propelled Mobile Ladder Stands and Scaffolds
(Towers)
Other
Working Surfaces
WALKING-WORKING
SURFACES (SLIPS, TRIPS, AND FALLS)
Slips,
trips, and falls constitute the majority of
general industry accidents. They cause 15%
of all accidental deaths, and are second only
to motor vehicles as a cause of fatalities.
The OSHA standards for walking and working
surfaces apply to all permanent places of
employment, except where domestic, mining,
or agricultural work only is performed.
GENERAL
REQUIREMENTS
Housekeeping
Some
of the most frequently overlooked general
requirements involve housekeeping:
- All
places of employment, passageways, storerooms,
and service rooms shall be kept clean and
orderly and in a sanitary condition.
- The
floor of every workroom shall be maintained
in a clean and, so far as possible, a dry
condition. Where wet processes are used,
drainage shall be maintained and gratings,
mats, or raised platforms shall be provided.
- Every
floor, working place and passageway shall
be kept free from protruding nails, splinters,
holes, or loose boards.
Aisles
and Passageways
- Aisles
and passageways shall be kept clear and
in good repair with no obstruction across
or in aisles that could create a hazard.
- Permanent
aisles and passageways shall be appropriately
marked.
- Where
mechanical handling equipment is used, aisles
shall be sufficiently wide. Improper aisle
widths coupled with poor housekeeping and
vehicle traffic can cause injury to employees,
damage the equipment and material, and can
limit egress in emergencies.
Covers
and Guardrails
Covers
and/or guardrails shall be provided to protect
personnel from the hazards of open pits, tanks,
vats, ditches, and the like.
Floor
Loading Protection
Load
rating limits shall be marked on plates and
conspicuously posted. It shall be unlawful
to place, or cause, or permit to be placed,
on any floor or roof of a building or other
structure, a load greater than that for which
such floor or roof is approved.
GUARDING
FLOOR AND WALL OPENINGS AND HOLES
Floor
openings and holes, wall openings and holes,
and the open sides of platforms may create
hazards. People may fall through the openings
or over the sides to the level below. Objects,
such as tools or parts, may fall through the
holes and strike people or damage machinery
on lower levels.
OSHA
standards for guarding openings and holes
use the following definitions:
Floor
hole. An opening
measuring less than 12 inches but more than
1 inch in its least dimension, in any floor,
platform, pavement or yard, through which
materials but not persons may fall.
Floor
opening. An opening
measuring 12 inches or more in its least dimension,
in any floor, platform, pavement, or yard,
through which persons may fall.
Platform.
A working space for persons,
elevated above the surrounding floor or ground.
Wall
hole. An opening
less than 30 inches but more than 1 inch high,
of unrestricted width, in any wall or partition.
Wall
opening. An opening
at least 30 inches high and 18 inches wide,
in any wall or partition, through which persons
may fall.
Protection
for Floor Openings
Standard
railings shall be provided on all exposed
sides of a stairway opening, except at the
stairway entrance. For infrequently used stairways,
where traffic across the opening prevents
the use of a fixed standard railing, the guard
shall consist of a hinged floor opening cover
of standard strength and construction along
with removable standard railings on all exposed
sides, except at the stairway entrance.
A
"standard railing" consists of
top rail, mid rail, and posts, and shall
have a vertical height of 42 inches nominal
from the upper surface of top rail to floor,
platform, runway, or ramp level. Nominal
height of mid rail is 21 inches.
A
"standard toeboard" is 4 inches
nominal in vertical height, with not more
than ¼-inch clearance above floor level.
Floor
openings may be covered rather than guarded
with rails. When the floor opening cover is
removed, a temporary guardrail shall be in
place, or an attendant shall be stationed
at the opening to warn personnel.
Every
floor hole into which persons can accidentally
walk shall be guarded by either:
- A
standard railing with toeboard, or
- A
floor hole cover of standard strength and
construction.
While
the cover is not in place, the floor hole
shall be constantly attended by someone or
shall be protected by a removable standard
railing.
Protection
of Open-Sided Floors, Platforms, and Runways
One
of the most frequently overlooked requirements
in walking-working surfaces is the requirement
that every open-sided floor or platform 4
feet or more above adjacent floor or ground
level shall be guarded by a standard railing
on all open sides, except where there is an
entrance to a ramp, stairway, or fixed ladder.
The railing shall be provided with a toeboard
wherever, beneath the open sides:
- Persons
can pass,
- There
is moving machinery, or
- There
is equipment with which falling materials
could create a hazard.
Every
runway shall be guarded by a standard railing,
or the equivalent, on all sides 4 feet or
more above floor or ground level. Wherever
tools, machine parts, or materials are likely
to be used on the runway, a toeboard shall
also be provided on each exposed side.
Regardless
of height, open-sided floors, walkways, platforms,
or runways above or adjacent to dangerous
equipment, pickling or galvanizing tanks,
degreasing units, and similar hazards shall
be guarded with a standard railing and toeboard.
Stairway
Railings and Guards
Every
flight of stairs with four or more risers
shall have standard stair railings or standard
handrails as specified below. Stair width
is measured clear of all obstructions except
handrails.
- On
stairways less than 44 inches wide having
both sides enclosed, at least one handrail
shall be affixed, preferably on the right
side descending.
- On
stairways less than 44 inches wide with
one open side, at least one stair rail shall
be affixed on the open side.
- On
stairways less than 44 inches wide having
both sides open, two stair rails shall be
provided, one for each side.
- On
stairways more than 44 inches wide, but
less than 88 inches, one handrail shall
be provided on each enclosed side and one
stair rail on each open side.
- On
stairways 88 inches or more in width, one
handrail shall be provided on each enclosed
side, one stair rail on each open side,
and one intermediate stair rail placed approximately
in the middle of the stairs.
A
"standard stair railing" (stair
rail) shall be of construction similar to
a standard railing, but the vertical height
shall be not more than 34 inches nor less
than 30 inches from the upper surface of the
top rail to the surface of the tread in line
with the face of the riser at the forward
edge of the tread.
A
"standard handrail" consists of
a lengthwise member mounted directly on a
wall or partition by means of brackets attached
to the lower side of the handrail in order
to keep a smooth, unobstructed surface along
the top and both sides of the handrail. They
shall hold the rail 3 inches from the wall
and be no more than 8 feet apart.
The
height of handrails shall be no more than
34 inches nor less than 30 inches from the
upper surface of the handrail to the surface
of the tread in line with the face of the
riser or to the surface of the ramp.
Winding
stairs shall have a handrail that is offset
to prevent people from walking on any portion
of the treads where the width is less than
6 inches.
FIXED
INDUSTRIAL STAIRS
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This
section contains specifications for
the safe design and construction of
fixed general industrial stairs. This
includes interior and exterior stairs
around machinery, tanks, and other equipment,
and stairs leading to or from floors,
platforms or pits. This section does
not apply to stairs used for
fire exit purposes, to construction
operations, to private residences, or
to articulated stairs, such as may be
installed on floating roof tanks, the
angle of which changes with the rise
and fall of the base support.
Where
are fixed stairs required?
Fixed
Industrial Stairs shall be provided
for access to and from places of work
where operations necessitate regular
travel between levels. OSHA requirements
include:
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- Fixed
industrial stairs shall be strong enough
to carry five times the normal anticipated
live load.
- At
the very minimum, any fixed stairway shall
be able to carry safely a moving concentrated
load of 1000 pounds.
- All
fixed stairways shall have a minimum width
of 22 inches.
- Fixed
stairs shall be installed at angles to the
horizontal of between 30o and
50o.
- Vertical
clearance above any stair tread to an overhead
obstruction shall be at least 7 feet measured
from the leading edge of the tread.
When
inspecting the condition of stairways in your
place of work, here are some items to watch
out for.
- Handrails
and Stair rails:
A.
Lack of
B. Placement
C. Smoothness of surface
D. Strength
E. Clearance between rail and wall or
other object
A.
Strength
B. Slip resistance
C. Dimensions
D. Evenness of surface
E. Visibility of leading edge
- Improper/inadequate
design, construction or location of staircases.
- Wet,
slippery, or damaged walking or grasping
surfaces.
- Improper
illumination...there is no general OSHA
standard for illumination levels. The Illuminating
Engineering Society publications should
be consulted for recommendations.
- Poor
housekeeping
The
length of a staircase is important. Long flights
of steps without landings should be avoided
whenever possible.
The
OSHA standards do not specify any exact number
or placement of landings. The National Safety
Council recommends landings at every
tenth or twelfth tread.
Intermediate
landings and platforms on stairways shall
be no less than the stair width and a minimum
of 30 inches in length measured in the direction
of travel.
PORTABLE
LADDERS
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The
chief hazard when using a ladder is
falling. A poorly designed, maintained,
or improperly used ladder may collapse
under the load placed upon it and cause
the employee to fall.
A
ladder is an appliance consisting of
two side rails joined at regular intervals
by crosspieces on which a person may
step to ascend or descend.
The
various types of portable ladders include:
- Stepladder
- A self-supporting portable ladder,
non-adjustable in length, having flat
steps and hinged back.
- Single
Ladder - A non self-supporting portable
ladder, nonadjustable in length, consisting
of but one section. Its size is designed
by overall length of the side rail.
- Extension
Ladder - A non self-supporting portable
ladder adjustable in length.
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OSHA's
requirements for portable ladders include:
- Portable
stepladders longer than 20 feet shall not
be used.
- Stepladders
shall be equipped with a metal spreader
or locking device of sufficient size and
strength to securely hold the front and
back sections in open position.
- Single
ladders longer than 30 feet shall not be
used.
- Extension
ladders longer than 60 feet shall not be
used.
- Ladders
shall be maintained in good condition at
all times.
- Ladders
shall be inspected frequently and those
which have developed defects shall be withdrawn
from service for repair or destruction and
tagged or marked as "Dangerous, Do
Not Use."
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Proper
use of ladders is essential in preventing
accidents. Even a good ladder can be
a serious safety hazard when used by
workers in a dangerous way.
OSHA
standards require the following safety
precautions for ladder use:
- Ladders
shall be placed with a secure footing,
or they shall be lashed, or held in
position.
- Ladders
used to gain access to a roof or other
area shall extend at least 3 feet
above the point of support.
- The
foot of a ladder shall, where possible,
be used at such a pitch that the horizontal
distance from the top support to the
foot of the ladder is one-quarter
of the working length of the ladder
(the length along the ladder between
the foot and the support). See figure
above.
- The
worker shall always face the
ladder when climbing up or down.
- Short
ladders shall not be spliced together
to make long ladders.
- Ladders
shall never be used in the horizontal
position as scaffolds or work platforms.
- The
top of a regular stepladder shall
not be used as a step.
- Use
both hands when climbing or descending
ladders.
- Metal
ladders shall never be used near electrical
equipment.
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FIXED
LADDERS
A
fixed ladder is a ladder permanently attached
to a structure, building or equipment.
A
point to remember is that fixed ladders, with
a length of more than 20 feet to a maximum
unbroken length of 30 feet shall be equipped
with cages or a ladder safety device.
A
"cage" is a guard that is fastened
to the side rails of the fixed ladder or to
the structure to encircle the climbing space
of the ladder for the safety of the person
who must climb the ladder.
Cages
shall extend a minimum of 42 inches above
the top of a landing, unless other acceptable
protection is provided.
Cages
shall extend down the ladder to a point not
less than 7 feet nor more than 8 feet above
the base of the ladder.
A
ladder safety device is any device, other
than a cage or well, designed to eliminate
or reduce the possibility of accidental falls
and may incorporate such features as life
belts, friction brakes, and sliding attachments.
Another
feature of fixed ladders is the landing platform
which provides a means of interrupting a free
fall and serves as a resting place during
long climbs.
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When
fixed ladders are used to ascend to
heights exceeding 20 feet (except on
chimneys), landing platforms shall be
provided for each 30 feet of height
or fraction thereof, when cages are
used, except that, where no cage, well,
or ladder safety device is provided,
landing platforms shall be provided
for each 20 feet of height or fraction
thereof.
Ladder
safety devices may be used on tower,
water tank, and chimney ladders over
20 feet in unbroken length in lieu of
cage protection. No landing platform
is required in these cases.
The
preferred pitch of fixed ladders shall
be considered to come in the range of
75 degrees and 90 degrees with the horizontal.
Fixed ladders shall be considered to
be substandard if they are installed
within the pitch range of 60 and 75
degrees with the horizontal. Substandard
fixed ladders are permitted only where
it is found necessary to meet conditions
of installation. This substandard pitch
range shall be considered as a critical
range to be avoided, if possible.
Ladders
having a pitch in excess of 90 degrees
with the horizontal are prohibited.
As
with all ladders, fixed ladders shall
be maintained in a safe condition and
inspected regularly.
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| SAFETY
REQUIREMENTS FOR SCAFFOLDING
This
section establishes safety requirements
for the construction, operation, maintenance,
and use of scaffolds used in the maintenance
of buildings and structures.
There
are a number of different types of scaffolds
available. No attempt will be made here
to deal with every unit individually.
It
is important, however, to note some
of the general requirements which apply
to all scaffolds, namely:
- The
footing or anchorage for scaffolds
shall be sound, rigid and capable
of carrying the maximum intended load
without settling or displacement.
Unstable objects, such as barrels,
boxes, loose brick, or concrete blocks
shall not be used to support scaffolds
or planks.
- Scaffolds
and their components shall be capable
of supporting at least four times
the maximum intended load.
- Scaffolds
shall be maintained in a safe condition
and shall not be altered or moved
horizontally while they are in use
or occupied.
- Damaged
or weakened scaffolds shall be immediately
repaired and shall not be used until
repairs have been completed.
- A
safe means must be provided to gain
access to the working platform level
through the use of a ladder, ramp,
etc.
- Overhead
protection must be provided for personnel
on a scaffold exposed to overhead
hazards.
- Guardrails,
midrails, and toeboards must be installed
on all open sides and ends of platforms
more than 10 feet above the ground
or floor. Wire mesh must be installed
between the toeboard and the guardrail
along the entire opening, where persons
are required to work or pass under
the scaffolds.
- Employees
shall not work on scaffolds during
storms or high winds or when covered
with ice or snow.
- As
noted earlier, there are a number
of scaffold types, and 1910.28 should
be reviewed carefully for special
requirements that apply to each type.
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MANUALLY
PROPELLED MOBILE LADDER STANDS AND SCAFFOLDS
(TOWERS)
This
section contains requirements for the design,
construction, and use of mobile work platforms
(including ladder stands but not including
aerial ladders) and rolling (mobile) scaffolds
(towers). As in the previous section, there
is a wide variety of materials and design
possibilities involved, and no attempt will
be made to discuss detailed design criteria
at this time.
General
requirements include:
- All
exposed surfaces of mobile ladder stands
and scaffolds shall be free from sharp edges,
burrs, or other safety hazards.
- The
maximum work height shall not exceed four
times the minimum base dimension unless
outriggers, guys or braces are added to
provide stability.
- This
standard requires guardrails and toeboards
for work levels 10 feet or more above the
ground or floor.
OSHA
standard 1910.29 should be reviewed carefully
for specific requirements.
OTHER
WORKING SURFACES
An
important requirement, which can prevent many
serious accidents is contained in this section:
portable dockboards (bridge plates) shall
be secured in position, either by being anchored
or equipped with devices which will prevent
their slipping. Movement of the dockboard
during material handling operations has resulted
in forklifts overturning, or falling off the
dock, often with serious injury or death to
the driver and damage to equipment and material.
A
major contribution to accident experience
comes from material handling. Handholds shall
be provided on portable dockboards to permit
safe handling when the dockboard must be repositioned
or relocated.
[62
FR 40141, July 25, 1997]
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